(born Sept. 21, 1842, Constantinople—died Feb. 10, 1918, Constantinople) Sultan (1876–1909) of the Ottoman Empire under whose rule the Tanzimat reform movement reached its climax. After initially promoting the first Ottoman constitution (primarily to ward off foreign intervention), he suspended it 14 months later and ruled thereafter as a despot. He used Pan-Islamism to rally Muslim opinion outside his empire; the Hejaz Railway was built with foreign contributions. Discontent with his absolutist rule and resentment over European intervention in the Balkans resulted in his overthrow by the Young Turks in 1908. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk; Enver Pasha; Midhat Pasha. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc

Devamı >>

(born 63 ?—died March, 12 , Campania) Powerful deputy of Augustus. He helped Octavian (later Augustus) take power after Julius Caesar's murder (44 ), defeating Sextus Pompeius in 36 and Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31. He went on to quell rebellions, found colonies, administer parts of the empire, and give to Rome funds for public works and buildings. In 23 Augustus seemed to make him heir, and Agrippa married Augustus's daughter, Julia. His administrative and military skills were particularly directed to the eastern empire, where in 15 he met with and made an ally of Herod of Judaea. Agrippa's writings (now lost) influenced Strabo and Pliny the Elder. His daughter Agrippina the Elder (14? – 33) was the wife of Germanicus Caesar, mother of Caligula and Agrippina the Younger, and grandmother of Nero. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Devamı >>

(born 1722, Multan, Punjab—died Oct. 16?, 1772, Toba Ma'rf, Afg.) Founder of modern Afghanistan. The son of an Afghan chief, he became shah in 1747 on the death of the Persian conqueror Ndir Shah, in whose army he had served. He proceeded to invade India nine times over the next 22 years in an attempt to control the trade routes between northern India and central and western Asia and became ruler of an empire that extended from the Amu Darya to the Indian Ocean and from Khorsn to present-day northern India. His hold on the Punjab, governed by his son Tmr Shah, was weakened by rebellions at home, and he ultimately lost control of it to the Sikhs. Much of his empire disintegrated after his death. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Devamı >>

(died 1898, Sokoto, Northern Nigeria) Second and last ruler of the Tukulor empire in West Africa. Succeeding his father, al-jj 'Umar, in 1864, Ahmadu ruled over a great empire centred on the ancient Bambara kingdom of Segu, in present Mali. In 1887 he was forced to abandon Segu and accept French protectorate status. By 1891 most of his strongholds had been seized. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Devamı >>

or Akhnaton orig. Amenhotep IV (r. 1353–36 ) Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty (1539–1292 ). He came to power during a period of Egyptian preeminence, with Egypt controlling Palestine, Phoenicia, and Nubia. Shortly after his reign began, he began to encourage the exclusive worship of the little-known deity Aton, a sun god he regarded as the source of all blessings. Assuming the name Akhenaton (“One Useful to Aton�), he moved his capital from Thebes to present-day Tell el-Amarna to escape established religious powers and make a fresh start. A new art style that focused on the details of actual life rather than on timeless conditions became popular. In government, Akhenaton tried to recapture the old authority of the ruler, which had been largely diverted to bureaucrats and officials, but his focus on his new religion to the exclusion of affairs of state resulted in the disintegration of Egypt's Asian empire. He was succeeded by two of his sons-in-law, Smenkhkare and Tutankhamen, but after Tutankhamen's early death the army took over the throne, and Akhenaton's new religion was abandoned. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Devamı >>

(born May 17, 1490, Ansbach—died March 20, 1568, Tapiau, East Prussia) last grand master of the Teutonic Knights from 1510 to 1525, first duke of Prussia (from 1525), a Protestant German ruler known chiefly for ending the Teutonic Knights' government of East Prussia and founding a hereditary dukedom in its place. Albert was the third son of Frederick of Hohenzollern, margrave of Ansbach-Bayreuth. In 1510 Albert was named grand master of the Teutonic Order and thus lord of East Prussia, which the order held under Polish suzerainty. A quarrel with the Poles, however, resulted in a war with Poland (1519–21) that caused considerable damage to East Prussia. During the truce that followed, the dispute remained unsettled. In 1523 the religious reformer Martin Luther advised Albert to dissolve the Teutonic Order and transform his Prussian holdings into a hereditary dukedom under the Polish crown, a solution accepted by King Sigismund I of Poland in 1525. The Holy Roman emperor Charles V in the 1530s placed Albert, now a Protestant, under the ban of the empire and demanded the return of East Prussia to the Teutonic Knights, but the faithful remnant of the latter, with scattered bases in Germany, could do nothing against Albert. Albert joined anti-imperial coalitions and cultivated Protestant Denmark and Sweden. At home, the East Prussian administration was secularized, but considerable privileges had to be conceded to the nobility before they would confirm his rule and grant him funds to govern. In his later years, Albert fell under the influence of theological and political adventurers, and his reign became marred by violent disputes. The University of Königsberg, founded on his initiative in 1544, was long troubled by such difficulties. Quiet had once again been restored, orthodox Lutheranism declared binding, the succession finally settled, and the adventurers either expelled or executed, when Albert died. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Devamı >>

orig. Rolando Bandinelli (born 1105, Siena, Tuscany—died Aug. 30, 1181, Rome) Pope (1159–81). A member of the group of cardinals who feared the growing strength of the Holy Roman Empire, he helped draw up an alliance with the Normans (1156). As the representative of Pope Adrian IV, he angered Frederick I (Frederick Barbarossa) by referring to the empire as a “benefice,� implying that it was a gift of the pope. On Alexander's election as pope in 1159, a minority of cardinals supported by Frederick elected the first of several antipopes, and imperial opposition obliged Alexander to flee to France (1162). A vigorous defender of papal authority, he supported St. Thomas Becket against Henry II of England. He returned to Rome in 1165 but was exiled again the following year. He gained support with the formation of the Lombard League, which defeated Frederick at Legnano in 1176, paving the way for the Peace of Venice and the end of the papal schism. Alexander stood in the reform tradition and presided at the third Lateran Council (1179). Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Devamı >>

Latin Lucius Domitius Aurelianus (born 215—died 275, near Byzantium) Roman emperor 270–75. Probably from the Balkans, he became emperor after Claudius II's death and the brief reign of Claudius's brother. He reunited the empire and restored Roman power in Europe, turning back invaders and quelling revolts, securing provinces in the east and defeating the Germans to the north, for which he took the title restitutor orbis (“restorer of the world�). He built a new wall around Rome and increased food distribution to the poor, but his monetary and religious reforms failed. While marching to Persia, he was slain by a group of officers who mistakenly believed they had been marked for execution. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc

Devamı >>

(born 1048, Constantinople—died Aug. 15, 1118) Byzantine emperor (1081–1118). An experienced military leader, he seized the Byzantine throne in 1081, driving back the invading Normans and Turks and founding the Comnenian dynasty. Alexius increased Byzantine strength in Anatolia and in the eastern Mediterranean but failed to curb the power of the landed magnates who had divided the empire in the past. He protected the Eastern Orthodox church but did not hesitate to seize its assets when in financial need. His appeal for Western support in 1095 was a factor in Pope Urban II's call for the First Crusade. Alexius's relations with the Crusaders were difficult, and from 1097 onward the Crusades frustrated his foreign policy. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Devamı >>

(born 1475, Almagro, Castile—died 1538, Cuzco, Peru) Spanish soldier who played a leading role in the Spanish conquest of Peru. Following service in the Spanish navy, he arrived in South America in 1524 and, with Francisco Pizarro, led the expedition that conquered the Inca empire in what is now Peru. Bitter enmity arose between the two men, and Almagro imprisoned Pizarro's two brothers for insubordination during an Indian rebellion. Pizarro then defeated Almagro's army and had his former friend put to death. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Devamı >>

(Turkish ‘hero-lion') (born 1030—died November? 1072/January 1073) Second sultan of the Seljq dynasty, who added Georgia, Armenia, and much of Anatolia to his domains of Khorsn and western Iran. He preferred conquest to governing and left the administration of his empire to his famous vizier, Nim al-Mulk. In 1071 his victory over the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert opened the door for the eventual Turkish conquest of Anatolia. He died a year later when mortally wounded by a prisoner during a quarrel. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Devamı >>

in full Amad Ibn Muafa (born 1806, Tunis—died 1855, alq al-Wd, Tunisia) 10th ruler of the usaynid dynasty of Tunisia. Succeeding his brother as the ruler of Tunis in 1837, Amad began at once to modernize his armed forces: Tunisian cadets were sent to France, a military and technical academy was established, and European instructors invited to Tunis. He organized a naval force with 12 frigates purchased from France. He sent 8,000–10,000 soldiers to fight with the allies (France, England, Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire) against the Russians in the Crimean War (1853–56). Also active in internal reform, Amad in 1841 abolished the sale of black slaves and in 1846 slavery altogether, and he removed many disabilities endured by the Jews. In Carthage he founded a hospital and, in 1845, Saint-Louis College, which was open to boys of all faiths and was the beginning of secular education in Tunisia. To pay for his reforms, he increased taxation, but this led to revolts in 1840, 1842, and 1843. Prior to his rule, Tunisia was nominally a part of the empire that was ruled by Ottoman Turks. Resisting their claims of sovereignty, he sought the help of France in order to assert his independence. In 1845 he was recognized by the Ottomans as an independent sovereign. He was succeeded in 1855 by his cousin Muammad, who reigned until 1859. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Devamı >>

Entrepreneur and founder of Famous Amos Chocolate Chip Cookies. Born Wallace Amos Jr., on July 1, 1936, in Tallahassee, Florida. Following his parents' separation in 1948, Amos was sent to New York City to live with his Aunt Della, who often baked homemade chocolate chip and pecan cookies. Amos' penchant for cooking led him to enroll at the Food Trades Vocational High School, where he studied culinary arts for two years. After a four-year stint in the U.S. Air Force, Amos returned to New York in 1957. He spent the ensuing years working in the stock room at Saks Fifth Avenue and in the mailroom at the prestigious William Morris Agency. In 1962, following a number of promotions, Amos became the first black talent agent in the history of the William Morris Agency. Determined to make his mark by signing a blockbuster act, his tenacity was rewarded when he discovered the singing duo of Simon and Garfunkel. Over the next few years, Amos headed the agency's newly formed rock & roll department, where he worked with Diana Ross, Marvin Gaye, and Sam Cooke. In 1967, Amos left William Morris and moved to Los Angeles, where he struggled to set up his own personal management company. Burdened with the debt of his failing business, Amos began to take comfort in baking chocolate chip cookies. Using a modified version of his Aunt Della's recipe, he planned to open the first freestanding cookie store. With financial backing from singers like Gaye and an innovative marketing initiative, which included an extensive advertising campaign and a gala grand opening, the first Famous Amos store opened on Sunset Boulevard in 1975. Within months, Amos opened two more West Coast franchises, while the New York-based Bloomingdale's department store also began selling the gourmet cookies. Amos and his cookie empire enjoyed a decade of success. However, in 1985, mismanagement forced Amos to gradually sell off parts of his company. In 1988, a corporation called the Shansby Group purchased Famous Amos Cookies and successfully repositioned the brand image, changing it from a specialty item to a lower-priced product. In 1991, Amos attempted to launch another cookie company, which he called Wally Amos Presents Chip & Cookie. The Shansby Group sued Amos for violating an agreement that forbade him to use his name and likeness on the packaging of any food products. In 1998, the Keebler Company purchased the Famous Amos brand, at which time Amos resumed his role as the product's spokesperson. Amos has three sons from his first two marriages. He and his third wife, Christine Harris, live in Hawaii, where they are raising their teenage daughter. © 2008 A&E Television Networks. All rights reserved.

Devamı >>

Comnena also spelled Komnene (born December 2, 1083—died c. 1153) Byzantine historian and daughter of the emperor Alexius I Comnenus. She is remembered for her Alexiad, a history of the life and reign of her father, which became a valuable source as a pro-Byzantine account of the early Crusades. Anna received a good education, studying, among other subjects, literature, philosophy, history, and geography. She married the leader of Bryennium, Nicephorus Bryennius (1097), and joined her mother, the empress Irene, in a vain effort to persuade her father during his last illness to disinherit his son, John II Comnenus, in favour of Nicephorus. Later conspiring to depose her brother after his accession to the throne (1118), Anna was, however, unable to obtain the support of her husband; the plot was discovered, and she forfeited her property, retiring to a convent, where she wrote the Alexiad. This work, in Greek, provides a picture of religious and intellectual activities within the empire, reflecting the Byzantine conception of the imperial office. It suffers from a defective chronology and excessive adulation of Alexius I, but it is invaluable for its character sketches of the leaders of the First Crusade as well as others with whom Anna had direct contact. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Devamı >>

or Antigonus I Cyclops (born 382—died 301 , Phrygia, Asia Minor) Founder of the Macedonian dynasty of the Antigonids. He served as a general under Alexander the Great. From the plots, alliances, and wars among Alexander's successors, he emerged in control of Asia Minor and Syria, though he soon relinquished the lands east of the Euphrates to Seleucus I Nicator. In 307 his son Demetrius I ousted the governor of Athens and conquered Cyprus, giving Antigonus control of the eastern Mediterranean, the Aegean, and Asia Minor. In 306 he was proclaimed king of the empire by the assembled army. In 302 he and his son renewed the Panhellenic League (consisting of all the Hellenic states except Sparta, Messenia, and Thessaly), in order to ensure peace in Hellas and protect Antigonus. His dreams of taking Macedonia itself and Alexander's entire former empire died with him at the Battle of Ipsus (301), the only battle he ever lost. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Devamı >>